Chemistry, trade, and the economy: Exploring the history of customs laboratories in the United States (1870s-1930s).

This article focuses on the history of the customs laboratories in the United States between the 1870s and the 1930s, focusing especially on the decades up to World War I. It pays attention to the various dimensions of these laboratories, in particular the context of their creation. The first customs laboratory was established in New York in 1878, and over the subsequent years, similar laboratories were set up across the country. The evolution of this network was influenced by factors such as the increasing specialization of these spaces, their geographic distribution, and changes in their organization and scope. The article also explores the types of imported merchandise analyzed in these labs; the roles of their staff, especially customs chemists, both within and outside these laboratories; their impact on the circulation of goods and in generating revenue from taxation; and the main challenges faced by customs chemists in adapting and standardizing their work. After discussing the necessity of customs laboratories in the United States, the article examines their progressive specialization, with a detailed study of the customs laboratory in New York. This laboratory was the largest and most significant due to its location and longevity. Finally, the paper considers the relationship between customs labs and the law, and how these spaces adapted to new challenges during the first third of the twentieth century.

El laboratorio de los Anales. Peritaje, enseñanza, edición y comercio en el laboratorio de análisis químico de la calle Carretas, Madrid, 1867-1880 / The anales laboratory. Expertise, teaching, publishing and trade in the laboratory of chemical analysis at carretas street, madrid, 1867-1880

El laboratorio de análisis químico abierto, entre 1867 y 1880, en la calle Carretas de Madrid, es estudiado aquí en el contexto de las disputas corporativas por el control de un nuevo espacio de actividad académica y profesional surgido en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX en torno a la determinación de composición química de alimentos, bebidas y productos de la industria, la agricultura y el comercio. Se analiza la ubicación y el diseño de los espacios, la interacción entre las diferentes actividades desarrolladas dentro y fuera del laboratorio, así como las razones y los intereses que atrajeron a los diferentes públicos que hicieron uso de sus servicios. El objetivo es comprender mejor el significado y el funcionamiento de un espacio híbrido en el que actividades diversas y dispersas como el análisis químico, la producción industrial, la enseñanza, la divulgación y la edición interactuaron de forma sinérgica para sustentar la autoridad y la credibilidad que sus promotores necesitaban para conquistar la confianza de quienes estuvieron dispuestos a pagar por sus productos, en su mayoría escritos.(AU)

The laboratory of chemical analysis operating, between 1867 and 1880, at Carretas street in Madrid is studied here in the context of professional disputes over the control of news spaces for academic and professional activities emerging in the second half of the 19th Century on chemical analyses of food beverages and industrial, trade and agriculture products. The paper examines the location and design of the laboratory, the interaction between the different activities carried out inside and outside the lab, and the reasons and interests that attracted different publics requesting a variety of services. The aim is to understand better the meaning and operation of a hybrid space with a large range of activities such as chemical analysis, industrial production, teaching, and popularization interacting synergistically. They were employed by the promoters of the lab to reinforce the authority and credibility required to gain the confidence of those who were willing to pay for their products.(AU)

Nombrar los cosméticos: los orígenes y consolidación de la nomenclatura cosmética internacional / Naming cosmetics: origins and consolidation of the international nomenclature of cosmetics

Este trabajo estudia el desarrollo y consolidación de la terminología cosmética internacional en los EEUU y en Europa, considerando, especialmente, el periodo comprendido 1938 y 1996. El potente sector cosmético estadounidense desarrolló diferentes esfuerzos para estandarizar sus productos que culminaron, en 1973, con la publicación del Cosmetic Ingredient Dictionary y de una nomenclatura específica denominada inicialmente CTFA Adopted Names y, desde 1993, International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients (INCI). En Europa, el proceso de estandarización terminológica fue más tardío e implicó la coexistencia de diferentes estándares, así como la adopción final de las normas INCI de cara a los consumidores que consolidó un mercado cosmético internacional. (AU)

This work studies the development and consolidation of an international terminology of cosmetics in both the United States and Europe, considering, mainly, the period between 1938 and 1996. The powerful cosmetic sector of the US made several efforts to standardize its products resulting in the publication of the Cosmetic Ingredient Dictionary in 1973, with a specific nomenclature initially called CTFA Adopted Names, and, since 1993, International Nomenclature of Cosmetic ingredients (INCI). In Europe, the terminology standardization process took longer, involving the coexistence of different standards, as well as the final adoption of INCI terminology for consumers, which consolidated an international cosmetic market. (AU)

El laboratorio de la aduana de Valencia: fiscalidad, análisis químicos y patrimonio portuario (1927-1937) / The laboratory of the customs of Valencia: taxation, chemical analysis and port heritage (1927-1937)

Este artículo estudia el laboratorio aduanero de Valencia, un espacio situado en la frontera entre la química y la economía. Dependiente del Ministerio de Hacienda y situado en la aduana del puerto valenciano formaba parte de una red de laboratorios fiscales regio-nales creados en la década de 1920. El laboratorio no se limitó al reconocimiento y análisis de mercancías para mejorar la recaudación arancelaria, sino que se convirtió en un espacio útil en su entorno local. El artículo explora cómo fue creado e instalado en el puerto, así como su relación con otros inspectores portuarios. También se analizan sus actividades principales y sus primeros expertos. Finalmente, se estudia con detalle el patrimonio y la cultura material del laboratorio para conocer mejor el tipo de análisis realizados y las conexiones creadas con el resto de dependencias aduaneras, y con los comerciantes e industriales del puerto y la ciudad (AU)

Nombrar los cosméticos: los orígenes y consolidación de la nomenclatura cosmética internacional / Naming cosmetics: origins and consolidation of the international nomenclature of cosmetics

Este trabajo estudia el desarrollo y consolidación de la terminología cosmética internacional en los EEUU y en Europa, considerando, especialmente, el periodo comprendido 1938 y 1996. El potente sector cosmético estadounidense desarrolló diferentes esfuerzos para estandarizar sus productos que culminaron, en 1973, con la publicación del Cosmetic Ingredient Dictionary y de una nomenclatura específica denominada inicialmente CTFA Adopted Names y, desde 1993, International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients (INCI). En Europa, el proceso de estandarización terminológica fue más tardío e implicó la coexistencia de diferentes estándares, así como la adopción final de las normas INCI de cara a los consumidores que consolidó un mercado cosmético internacional

This work studies the development and consolidation of an international terminology of cosmetics in both the United States and Europe, considering, mainly, the period between 1938 and 1996. The powerful cosmetic sector of the US made several efforts to standardize its products resulting in the publication of the Cosmetic Ingredient Dictionary in 1973, with a specific nomenclature initially called CTFA Adopted Names, and, since 1993, International Nomenclature of Cosmetic ingredients (INCI). In Europe, the terminology standardization process took longer, involving the coexistence of different standards, as well as the final adoption of INCI terminology for consumers, which consolidated an international cosmetic market

Regulación y terminología dermocosmética: los orígenes de las normas INCI en España / Dermocosmetic's regulation and terminology: the origins of the INCI norms in Spain

INTRODUCCIÓN: el uso de normas concretas para identificar correctamente los ingredientes que componían los cosméticos resultó fundamental para su control. En este trabajo se analiza el costoso proceso requerido para la adopción de la terminología INCI en España realizado entre las décadas de 1960 y 1990. MÉTODOS: se ha realizado un análisis de la legislación publicada en España sobre el control de los productos cosméticos entre las décadas de 1940 y 1990. Se ha recuperado de forma sistemática aquellas cuestiones relacionadas con el registro de los productos cosméticos y las terminologías y nomenclaturas utilizadas para identificar los ingredientes con los que se fabricaban. También se han consultado fuentes primarias impresas, así como prensa periódica. Estas fuentes primarias se han discutido y contextualizado con la ayuda de publicaciones especializadas en historia de la ciencia más recientes. Resultados y CONCLUSIONES: la adopción de una nomenclatura o terminología cosmética precisa era necesaria tanto para su registro ante las administraciones sanitarias, como para los consumidores que eran informados en el etiquetado. La regulación sanitaria de los productos cosméticos era muy laxa hasta que, en la década de 1960, se desarrolló esta industria y su mercado en España. La consolidación del sector dermofarmacéutico se produjo en la década de 1970, en parte debido a los esfuerzos de diversos sectores farmacéuticos. La progresiva introducción de nomenclaturas cosméticas internacionales culminó en la década de 1990 con la adopción oficial de la terminología INCI en España

INTRODUCTION: the use of specific rules to correctly identify ingredients used in cosmetics was essential for their control. This paper analyses the complex process to adapt the INCI terminology between the 1960s and the 1990s. METHOD: analysis of the legislation published in Spain on the control of cosmetic products between the 1940s and the 1990s, focusing on cosmetic's registers and terminologies and nomenclatures used to identify their ingredients. Printed Primary sources, and periodical press have also been consulted. Primary sources have been discussed and contextualized with the help of more recent history of science publications. Results and CONCLUSIONS: The adoption of precise cosmetic nomenclature or terminology was required by health authorities registering these products, as well as for the labelling to inform consumer. The sanitary regulation of cosmetic products was very lax until the development of this industry and its market in Spain in the 1960s. The consolidation of the dermopharmaceutical sector occurred in the 1970s, in part due to the efforts of various pharmaceutical sectors. The gradual introduction of international cosmetic nomenclatures culminated in the 1990s with the official introduction of the INCI terminology in Spain

Poisoned Wine: Regulation, Chemical Analyses, and Spanish-French Trade in the 1930s.

This paper describes the resources, scientific spaces, and experts involved in the study of a mass poisoning caused by the drinking of arsenic-contaminated wine exported from Spain to France in 1932. Local and international periodicals record the poisoning of 300 French sailors, and stressed the commercial implications of the case. We discuss the reports prepared by different experts (mainly physicians, agricultural engineers, and customs chemists). Their work was not limited to preparing technical publications or chemical analyses; they also actively defended the quality of their local wine, and played a major role in the discussions regarding the regulation of the international wine market in the 1930s, when new standards regarding the analysis of wine were being considered. Curiously, this well-publicised case of mass poisoning did not have any noticeable consequences in the international regulation of wine. This absence of subsequent regulatory action and the role of experts are central topics of the paper.

Química, pedagogía y autoridad experta: el Tratado de Análisis Químico de José Casares Gil (1866-1961) y la construcción de una disciplina científica / Chemistry, pedagogy, and scientific authority: the Tratado de Análisis Químico by José Casares Gil (1866-1961), and the shaping of a scientific discipline

En este artículo se estudiará cómo José Casares utilizó sus libros de texto y su reconocimiento como experto para consolidar el análisis químico como disciplina en las universidades españolas. En primer lugar se mostrará el papel activo de Casares en la configuración de sus libros de texto. Gracias a sus publicaciones, algunos autores de libros de ciencias se convirtieron en voces autorizadas en su disciplina y las promocionaban en sus contextos locales. El estudio del tratado publicado por Casares muestra también los recursos utilizados por su autor para afirmar su disciplina ante públicos diversos. En segundo lugar se describe el origen y la evolución de su tratado, así como sus principales elementos configurativos. Finalmente, se examinan las estrategias utilizadas por Casares para construir una identidad disciplinar en torno a la química analítica en España (AU)

This article will explore how José Casares employed his textbooks and his recognition as expert to consolidate chemical analysis as a discipline in the Spanish universities. First, it will be shown the active role of Casares in the shaping of his textbooks. Thanks to their publications, textbook authors became trusted voices in their disciplines, promoting them in their local contexts. The study of the Casares’ treatise also shows the resources employed to establish his discipline among different publics. Secondly, the article will describe the origin and the evolution of his treatise, as well as its main shaping elements. Finally, the article will examine the strategies developed by Casares to construct a disciplinary identity for analytical chemistry in Spain (AU)

Experts, chemistry and medicine: Antonio Casares (1812-1888), José Salgado (1811-1890) and the controversy around the analysis of Carratraca Spa waters.

This article studies a scientific controversy on the chemical analysis of Carratraca Spa water and discusses the shaping of the scientific authority of two mid-19th century Spanish experts in mineral waters: Antonio Casares, professor of chemistry at the University of Santiago, and Jose Salgado, medical director of the Spa. It considers the resources employed by the two experts in the dispute and shows that much of the scientific controversy involved not only technical issues but also numerous economic, social and personal interests of the participants. Besides addressing the role played by both experts in the controversy, the article reports on the participation of other stakeholders with different levels of expertise. Their involvement in the dispute was reflected in specialized media, medical reports, special issues, chemical treatises, and specialized articles as well as in the general press. Finally, the article shows that discussions on analytical methods, instrument use or results interpretation also involved consideration of other issues, such as the training and skills of experts and their privileges, prerogatives and scientific authority, which affected the development and ending of the controversy.

Between chemistry, medicine and leisure: Antonio Casares and the study of mineral waters and Spanish spas in the nineteenth century.

This article considers how chemical analyses were employed not only to study and describe mineral waters, but also to promote new spas, and to reinforce the scientific authority of experts. Scientists, jointly with bath owners, visitors and local authorities, created a significant spa market by transforming rural spaces into social and economic sites. The paper analyses the role developed by the chemist Antonio Casares in the commodification of mineral water in mid-19(th) century Spain. His scientific publications and water analyses put a new economic value on some Spanish mineral waters and rural springs. First the paper explores the relationship between geographic factors, regulation, and spa development in 19(th) century Spain, and considers how scientific work improved the economy of some rural areas. Then the transformation of numerous country springs into spas, and the commodification of baths as places between science and leisure is examined. Finally the location of spas across the borders of medicine and chemistry is shown, together with the complex field operations required to study mineral waters. This paper reveals an intense circulation of knowledge between the field, laboratories and scientific publications, as well as the essential role developed by experts like Casares, who not only contributed to the study of rural springs but also to their economic transformation.

Expertos, química y medicina: Antonio Casares (1812-1888), José Salgado (1811-1890) y la controversia en torno al análisis de las aguas del balneario de Carratraca / Experts, chemistry and medicine: Antonio Casares (1812-1888), José Salgado (1811-1890) and the controversy around the analysis of Carratraca Spa waters

En este artículo se estudia una controversia científica relacionada con el análisis químico de las aguas del balneario de Carratraca. El artículo discute la construcción de la autoridad científica de dos expertos españoles en aguas minerales a mediados del siglo XIX: Antonio Casares, catedrático de química en la Universidad de Santiago y José Salgado, el médico director del balneario. En este artículo se estudian los recursos utilizados por ambos expertos en la disputa y se muestra como muchas polémicas científicas no implicaban únicamente la discusión de cuestiones técnicas sino que respondían a los numerosos intereses económicos, sociales y personales de sus participantes. Además de estudiar el papel desempeñado por ambos expertos en la polémica, se considera la participación de otros actores, cada uno con distintos grados de conocimiento. Su intervención en el debate se reflejó tanto en medios especializados, memorias médicas, monografías, tratados químicos o artículos especializados como en la prensa general. Finalmente, el artículo muestra que la discusión sobre los métodos de análisis utilizados, los instrumentos utilizados y la interpretación de los resultados también implicaba la discusión de cuestiones como la formación y las capacidades de los expertos, sus privilegios y prerrogativas y su autoridad científica, que afectaban tanto al desarrollo de la controversia como a su finalización (AU)

This article studies a scientific controversy on the chemical analysis of Carratraca Spa water and discusses the shaping of the scientific authority of two mid-19th century Spanish experts in mineral waters: Antonio Casares, professor of chemistry at the University of Santiago, and Jose Salgado, medical director of the Spa. It considers the resources employed by the two experts in the dispute and shows that much of the scientific controversy involved not only technical issues but also numerous economic, social and personal interests of the participants. Besides addressing the role played by both experts in the controversy, the article reports on the participation of other stakeholders with different levels of expertise. Their involvement in the dispute was reflected in specialized media, medical reports, special issues, chemical treatises, and specialized articles as well as in the general press. Finally, the article shows that discussions on analytical methods, instrument use or results interpretation also involved consideration of other issues, such as the training and skills of experts and their privileges, prerogatives and scientific authority, which affected the development and ending of the controversy (AU)

El cometa de Halley y la imagen pública de la astronomía en la prensa diaria española de principios del siglo XX / Halley's Comet and the public image of astronomy in the Spanish daily press of the early 20th century

Este texto pretende mostrar algunos aspectos de las representaciones formadas en la opinión pública española acerca de la astronomía y la astrofísica, a partir del análisis de las noticias publicadas en algunas de las cabeceras más destacadas con motivo de la aparición del cometa de Halley en 1910. El interés despertado por la llegada de este cometa estuvo íntimamente ligado a su asociación con diferentes desastres y calamidades, representado en este caso por el equipaje de gases mortíferos que portaba y que desató una inquietud generalizada entre una parte importante de la población. Esta preocupación sirvió para reforzar y legitimar frente a la opinión pública la actividad desarrollada por los científicos, en particular los astrónomos, convertidos en expertos dedicados a tranquilizar a la población mediante datos espectroscópicos, cálculos de mecánica celeste y explicaciones sobre la naturaleza de las masas cometarias, acrecentando el prestigio y estatus social de la astronomía (AU)

The aim of this paper was to show some aspects of the representations formed in Spanish public opinion on astronomy and astrophysics, based on an analysis of the news published under some of the most prominent headlines on the appearance of Halley's Comet in 1910. The interest aroused by the arrival of this comet was closely bound to its association with different disasters and calamities, represented in this case by the load of lethal gas it carried and that generated widespread unease among a large part of the population. This concern served to reinforce and legitimize in the eyes of public opinion the activity developed by scientists and especially astronomers, who became experts devoted to calming the population with spectroscopic data, calculations of celestial mechanics, and explanations of the nature of comet masses, thereby increasing the prestige and social status of astronomy (AU)